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Mingxuan Zhou, Shuang Li, Yutang Zhang, Jing Geng, Yirui Shen, Jingxuan Kang, Fuzhen Zhuang, Shuigen Wang

Infrared video acquisition inherently suffers from low spatial resolution and limited frame rates due to the physical constraints of thermal imaging sensors. These limitations make infrared video enhancement uniquely challenging, as it requires restoring spatial details and temporal continuity from highly undersampled thermal signals. To address this challenge, we propose THERIS, a unified THERmal-physics inspired framework for Infrared spatial-temporal video Super-resolution. Grounded in the physical principles of thermal diffusion, THERIS leverages heat conduction dynamics that govern the spatiotemporal evolution of infrared pixel intensities. Specifically, the proposed Thermal Diffusion Interpolation Module (TDIM) treats temporal feature sequences as one-dimensional heat fields and performs frequency-domain diffusion to synthesize temporally coherent intermediate frames. Building on this foundation, the Thermo-Aware State Space Module (TSSM) refines spatiotemporal representations through learnable spectral filtering and selective state-space modeling, while maintaining consistency guided by the thermodynamic prior inherited from TDIM. Additionally, a Temperature Field Modeling Loss is introduced to enforce adherence to the heat conduction equation, promoting temporal coherence and spatial stability in the generated results. Extensive experiments demonstrate that THERIS achieves state-of-the-art performance while producing visually coherent results. To facilitate further research in the infrared video processing domain, we also introduce IRVAL, a high-resolution dataset comprising 108,512 video frames at 512x512 resolution.

Haiwei Wu, Fengpeng Li, Zhilin Tu, Yuanman Li, Xiong Li, Jiantao Zhou

Advances in generative AI (GenAI) have increasingly complicated the identification of synthetic images, prompting the proposal of numerous zero-/few-shot detection methods to counter unknown GenAI better. However, we observe that existing detectors often misclassify synthetic images with physical transformations (e.g., print+scan) as real. The essence of this observation lies in: should images remapped from the physical world to digital space still be categorized as "Synthetic"? Furthermore, the definition of what constitutes real and synthetic images urgently needs to be clarified. We first boldly propose that the authenticity of an image depends on whether it originates from the physical world, i.e., it is necessary to verify the original correlation between the digital image and the physical world. To this end, we first analyze the physical-to-digital mapping process: illumination signals are captured by camera sensors as RAW data, which is then converted into RGB data via camera internal parameters. This process embodies unique physical cues inherent to real scenes. Based on this, we propose a novel forensic feature termed alignment trace, which is constructed by modeling a shared RAW-RGB feature space. This trace captures the inherent parameter correlations of real images in the physical-to-digital conversion process, thereby indirectly verifying the physical origin of the image. Experiments demonstrate that our method achieves state-of-the-art zero-shot detection using only real RAW-RGB data pairs. When additional prior knowledge is provided, the method can be easily fine-tuned to achieve better cross-domain detection performance. We hope this work provides a new baseline for zero-shot synthetic detection and, more significantly, inspires the forensics community to explore the essential distinctions between real and synthetic images.

Jiahuan Long, Tingsong Jiang, Hanqing Liu, Chao Ma, Weien Zhou, Yang Yang, Wen Yao

Adversarial patches have emerged as a popular privacy-preserving approach for resisting AI-driven surveillance systems. However, their conspicuous appearance makes them difficult to deploy in real-world scenarios. In this paper, we propose a thermally activated adversarial wearable designed to ensure adaptability and effectiveness in complex real-world environments. The system integrates thermochromic dyes with flexible heating units to induce visually dynamic adversarial patterns on clothing surfaces. In its default state, the clothing appears as an ordinary black T-shirt. Upon heating via an embedded thermal unit, hidden adversarial patterns on the fabric are activated, allowing the wearer to effectively evade detection across both visible and infrared modalities. Physical experiments demonstrate that the adversarial wearable achieves rapid texture activation within 50 seconds and maintains an adversarial success rate above 80% across diverse real-world surveillance environments. This work demonstrates a new pathway toward physically grounded, user-controllable anti-AI systems, highlighting the growing importance of proactive adversarial techniques for privacy protection in the age of ubiquitous AI surveillance.

Zixuan Wang, Yixin Hu, Haolan Wang, Feng Chen, Yan Liu, Wen Li, Yinjie Lei

Physically Plausible Video Generation (PPVG) has emerged as a promising avenue for modeling real-world physical phenomena. PPVG requires an understanding of commonsense knowledge, which remains a challenge for video diffusion models. Current approaches leverage commonsense reasoning capability of large language models to embed physical concepts into prompts. However, generation models often render physical phenomena as a single moment defined by prompts, due to the lack of conditioning mechanisms for modeling causal progression. In this paper, we view PPVG as generating a sequence of causally connected and dynamically evolving events. To realize this paradigm, we design two key modules: (1) Physics-driven Event Chain Reasoning. This module decomposes the physical phenomena described in prompts into multiple elementary event units, leveraging chain-of-thought reasoning. To mitigate causal ambiguity, we embed physical formulas as constraints to impose deterministic causal dependencies during reasoning. (2) Transition-aware Cross-modal Prompting (TCP). To maintain continuity between events, this module transforms causal event units into temporally aligned vision-language prompts. It summarizes discrete event descriptions to obtain causally consistent narratives, while progressively synthesizing visual keyframes of individual events by interactive editing. Comprehensive experiments on PhyGenBench and VideoPhy benchmarks demonstrate that our framework achieves superior performance in generating physically plausible videos across diverse physical domains. Code is available at https://github.com/ZixuanWang0525/CoECT.

Youngjoon Jeong, Junha Chun, Taesup Kim

Vision-based robotic policies often struggle with even minor viewpoint changes, underscoring the need for view-invariant visual representations. This challenge becomes more pronounced in real-world settings, where viewpoint variability is unavoidable and can significantly disrupt policy performance. Existing methods typically learn invariance from multi-view observations at the scene level, but such approaches rely on visual appearance and fail to incorporate the physical dynamics essential for robust generalization. We propose View-Invariant Latent Action (VILA), which models a latent action capturing transition patterns across trajectories to learn view-invariant representations grounded in physical dynamics. VILA aligns these latent actions across viewpoints using an action-guided objective based on ground-truth action sequences. Experiments in both simulation and the real world show that VILA-based policies generalize effectively to unseen viewpoints and transfer well to new tasks, establishing VILA as a strong pretraining framework that improves resilience to viewpoint shifts and downstream learning performance.

Abhishek Saroha, Huajian Zeng, Xingxing Zuo, Daniel Cremers, Xi Wang

Understanding and predicting object motion from egocentric video is fundamental to embodied perception and interaction. However, generating physically consistent 6DoF trajectories remains challenging due to occlusions, fast motion, and the lack of explicit physical reasoning in existing generative models. We present EgoFlow, a flow-matching framework that synthesizes realistic and physically plausible trajectories conditioned on multimodal egocentric observations. EgoFlow employs a hybrid Mamba-Transformer-Perceiver architecture to jointly model temporal dynamics, scene geometry, and semantic intent, while a gradient-guided inference process enforces differentiable physical constraints such as collision avoidance and motion smoothness. This combination yields coherent and controllable motion generation without post-hoc filtering or additional supervision. Experiments on HD-EPIC, EgoExo4D, and HOT3D show that EgoFlow outperforms diffusion-based and transformer baselines in accuracy, generalization, and physical realism, reducing collision rates by up to 79%, and strong generalization to unseen scenes. Our results highlight the promise of flow-based generative modeling for scalable and physically grounded egocentric motion understanding. Project page: https://abhi-rf.github.io/egoflow/

Haoru Xue, Tairan He, Zi Wang, Qingwei Ben, Wenli Xiao, Zhengyi Luo, Xingye Da, Fernando Castañeda, Guanya Shi, Shankar Sastry 等

Recent progress in GPU-accelerated, photorealistic simulation has opened a scalable data-generation path for robot learning, where massive physics and visual randomization allow policies to generalize beyond curated environments. Building on these advances, we develop a teacher-student-bootstrap learning framework for vision-based humanoid loco-manipulation, using articulated-object interaction as a representative high-difficulty benchmark. Our approach introduces a staged-reset exploration strategy that stabilizes long-horizon privileged-policy training, and a GRPO-based fine-tuning procedure designed to mitigate partial observability and improve closed-loop consistency in sim-to-real RL. Trained entirely on synthetic simulation data, the resulting policy achieves robust zero-shot performance across diverse articulated objects--including multiple door types--and outperforms human teleoperators by up to 31.7% in task completion time under the same whole-body control stack. This represents the first humanoid sim-to-real policy capable of diverse articulated loco-manipulation from pure RGB perception.

Junjin Xiao, Yandan Yang, Xinyuan Chang, Ronghan Chen, Feng Xiong, Mu Xu, Wei-Shi Zheng, Qing Zhang

Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models trained via imitation learning suffer from significant performance degradation in data-scarce scenarios due to their reliance on large-scale demonstration datasets. Although reinforcement learning (RL)-based post-training has proven effective in addressing data scarcity, its application to VLA models is hindered by the non-resettable nature of real-world environments. This limitation is particularly critical in high-risk domains such as industrial automation, where interactions often induce state changes that are costly or infeasible to revert. Furthermore, existing VLA approaches lack a reliable mechanism for detecting task completion, leading to redundant actions that reduce overall task success rates. To address these challenges, we propose RehearseVLA, an RL-based post-training framework that replaces physical interaction with a low-cost world model-based virtual simulator. RehearseVLA consists of two key components: (1) a physically-consistent world simulator that generates temporally consistent future visual observations, and (2) a vision-language model (VLM)-guided instant reflector that provides continuous reward signals and predicts action termination. This simulated environment enables VLA models to safely explore and generalize beyond their initial imitation learning distribution. Our method achieves notable performance gains with as few as five expert demonstrations per task. Experiments on complex robotic manipulation tasks demonstrate that RehearseVLA effectively overcomes the data inefficiency, safety constraints, and inefficient execution of conventional VLA models that rely on real-world interaction, offering a practical and scalable solution for post-training in resource-constrained settings. Our code is available at https://github.com/iSEE-Laboratory/RehearseVLA.

Yuqiao He, Xiaoyan Liu, Jianxu Mao, Yaonan Wang, Hui Zhang, Lizhu Liu, Yurong Chen, Wenbin He

Coded Aperture Snapshot Spectral Imaging (CASSI) has emerged as a prominent technique for efficient hyperspectral imaging. However, the tight coupling between physical encoding and computational decoding makes CASSI highly sensitive to slight hardware misalignments, which can significantly degrade reconstruction quality. Existing methods either assume ideal imaging conditions or rely on offline calibration, making them vulnerable to dynamic perturbations, such as thermal expansion and mechanical vibrations, which cause mask shifts. To address these limitations, we propose a Self-supervised Geometry Degradation Estimation (SGDE) framework that explicitly models mask misalignments as an affine transformation and embeds it into the imaging model. SGDE jointly estimates affine parameters and reconstructs the hyperspectral image in a self-supervised manner, eliminating the need for reference targets or device-specific training data. Furthermore, we introduce a multi-kernel estimation strategy to enhance the robustness of degradation estimation under large perturbations. Extensive experiments on both simulated and real-world datasets demonstrate that SGDE achieves superior robustness against mask misalignments. Moreover, the estimated affine parameters can be directly integrated into existing reconstruction algorithms, enabling plug-and-play degradation estimation for practical CASSI systems. The code is available at https://github.com/heyuqiao/SGDE.

Chuanrui Zhang, Yingshuang Zou, ZhengXian Wu, Yonggen Ling, Yuxiao Yang, Ziwei Wang

Perceiving and reconstructing objects from images are critical for real-to-sim transfer tasks, which are widely used in the robotics community.Existing methods rely on multiple submodules such as detection, segmentation, shape reconstruction, and pose estimation to complete the pipeline.However, such modular pipelines suffer from inefficiency and cumulative error, as each stage operates on only partial or locally refined information while discarding global context.To address these limitations, we propose UniPR, the first end-to-end object-level real-to-sim perception and reconstruction framework.Operating directly on a single stereo image pair, UniPR leverages geometric constraints to resolve the scale ambiguity.We introduce Pose-Aware Shape Representation to eliminate the need for per-category canonical definitions and to bridge the gap between reconstruction and pose estimation tasks.Furthermore, we construct a large-vocabulary stereo dataset, LVS6D, comprising over 6,300 objects, to facilitate large-scale research in this area.Extensive experiments demonstrate that UniPR reconstructs all objects in a scene in parallel within a single forward pass, achieving significant efficiency gains and preserves true physical proportions across diverse object types, highlighting its potential for practical robotic applications.

Hoonhee Cho, Yuhwan Jeong, Kuk-Jin Yoon

Event cameras provide high-temporal-resolution, motion-centric measurements that remain reliable under fast motion and challenging illumination, making them a promising sensing modality for motion deblurring. However, existing deblurring methods typically require large-scale paired blur--sharp datasets, which are extremely difficult to obtain in real-world settings, especially when an additional modality such as events is involved. In this work, we introduce EMP, an event-based motion deblurring framework that operates entirely in an unpaired setting, removing the need for aligned blur--sharp supervision. EMP bridges the disjoint blur and sharp domains through event information and leverages two complementary training mechanisms tailored to the unpaired regime: (1) an event-based physical prior with confidence masking that provides reliable self-supervisory signals for blurry inputs, and (2) a generative blur modeling process that extracts blur-related frequency-domain cues from blur--event pairs and transfers them to sharp images to synthesize realistic blur. Together, these mechanisms enable stable and effective deblurring without paired labels. Extensive experiments on various real event datasets, including REBlur, EventAid, and HighREV, show that EMP outperforms existing unpaired baselines and achieves performance competitive with paired methods.

Seonho Kim, Junhyeong Hong, Kyungjae Lee, Yoonseon Oh

Humans intuitively rely on text and symbols inscribed on objects (e.g. "PULL", "Squeeze and Turn") to perform tasks safely and correctly. In contrast, vision-language-action models excel at following external language commands, but remain largely unaware of this object-centric information. This capability is essential for reliable robotic operation, yet progress remains unmeasured due to the absence of standardized benchmarks. To address this gap, we introduce INSIGHT Bench, a benchmark that formalizes the task of "in-situ guide grounding". INSIGHT Bench provides a comprehensive taxonomy that evaluates how agents utilize diverse guide information, including action-direction cues and procedural instructions. It also includes a scalable simulation framework that procedurally generates tasks and programmatically links each visual guide to its corresponding physical constraint. We release both the benchmark and the resulting trajectory dataset to support future research. Our evaluation of recent VLA models reveals a critical limitation: their ability to ground in-situ guides is inconsistent and strongly dependent on the type of information. While models succeed on some guide categories, they frequently fail on others. However, performance improves substantially when the same information is provided as language instructions, indicating that in-situ guides could contribute to manipulation performance if VLAs were capable of interpreting them. These findings underscore the need for further research on understanding and grounding in-situ guides.

Xuan Huang, Mochu Xiang, Zhelun Shen, Jinbo Wu, Chenming Wu, Chen Zhao, Kaisiyuan Wang, Hang Zhou, Shanshan Liu, Haocheng Feng 等

Hand-Object Interaction (HOI) remains a core challenge in digital human video synthesis, where models must generate physically plausible contact and preserve object identity across frames. Although recent HOI reenactment approaches have achieved progress, they are typically trained and evaluated in-domain and fail to generalize to complex, in-the-wild scenarios. In contrast, all-in-one video editing models exhibit broader robustness but still struggle with HOI-specific issues such as inconsistent object appearance. In this paper, we present GenHOI, a lightweight augmentation to pretrained video generation models that injects reference-object information in a temporally balanced and spatially selective manner. For temporal balancing, we propose Head-Sliding RoPE, which assigns head-specific temporal offsets to reference tokens, distributing their influence evenly across frames and mitigating the temporal decay of 3D RoPE to improve long-range object consistency. For spatial selectivity, we design a two-level spatial attention gate that concentrates object-conditioned attention on HOI regions and adaptively scales its strength, preserving background realism while enhancing interaction fidelity. Extensive qualitative and quantitative evaluations on unseen, in-the-wild scenes demonstrate that GenHOI significantly outperforms state-of-the-art HOI reenactment and all-in-one video editing competitors.

Junhao Cheng, Liang Hou, Xin Tao, Jing Liao

While language models have become impactful in many real-world applications, video generation remains largely confined to entertainment. Motivated by video's inherent capacity to demonstrate physical-world information that is difficult to convey through language alone (e.g., imagine teaching someone to tie a tie using only text), we identify an underutilized opportunity to extend video as a new answer modality for Next-Event Prediction (NEP), formalized as Video-Next-Event Prediction (VNEP). While the established NEP task takes a video with a procedural or predictive question as input to predict the next event in text, VNEP requires dynamic video responses. This shift from telling to showing unlocks more intuitive and customized answers for procedural learning and creative exploration. However, this task remains challenging for existing models, as it demands an understanding of multimodal input, instruction-conditioned reasoning, and the generation of video with visual and semantic consistency. To address this, we introduce VANS, a model that leverages reinforcement learning to align a Vision-Language Model (VLM) with a Video Diffusion Model (VDM) for VNEP. The core of VANS is our proposed Joint-GRPO that orchestrates the VLM and VDM to function as a unit. Driven by a shared reward on their respective output, it optimizes the VLM to produce captions that are both accurate and friendly to visualize, while guiding the VDM to generate videos that are faithful to these captions and the input visual context. To enable this learning, we craft VANS-Data-100K, a dedicated dataset for the VNEP task. Experiments on procedural and predictive benchmarks demonstrate that VANS achieves state-of-the-art performance in both video event prediction and visualization.

Yuyang You, Yongzhi Li, Jiahui Li, Yadong Mu, Quan Chen, Peng Jiang

Video generation has recently emerged as a central task in the field of generative AI. However, the substantial computational cost inherent in video synthesis makes model distillation a critical technique for efficient deployment. Despite its significance, there is a scarcity of methods specifically designed for video diffusion models. Prevailing approaches often directly adapt image distillation techniques, which frequently lead to artifacts such as oversaturation, temporal inconsistency, and mode collapse. To address these challenges, we propose a novel distillation framework tailored specifically for video diffusion models. Its core innovations include: (1) an adaptive regression loss that dynamically adjusts spatial supervision weights to prevent artifacts arising from excessive distribution shifts; (2) a temporal regularization loss to counteract temporal collapse, promoting smooth and physically plausible sampling trajectories; and (3) an inference-time frame interpolation strategy that reduces sampling overhead while preserving perceptual quality. Extensive experiments and ablation studies on the VBench and VBench2 benchmarks demonstrate that our method achieves stable few-step video synthesis, significantly enhancing perceptual fidelity and motion realism. It consistently outperforms existing distillation baselines across multiple metrics.

Hyeongjin Nam, Daniel Sungho Jung, Kyoung Mu Lee

Joint reconstruction of 3D human and object from a single image is an active research area, with pivotal applications in robotics and digital content creation. Despite recent advances, existing approaches suffer from two fundamental limitations. First, their reconstructions rely heavily on physical contact information, which inherently cannot capture non-contact human-object interactions, such as gazing at or pointing toward an object. Second, the reconstruction process is primarily driven by local geometric proximity, neglecting the human and object appearances that provide global context crucial for understanding holistic interactions. To address these issues, we introduce TeHOR, a framework built upon two core designs. First, beyond contact information, our framework leverages text descriptions of human-object interactions to enforce semantic alignment between the 3D reconstruction and its textual cues, enabling reasoning over a wider spectrum of interactions, including non-contact cases. Second, we incorporate appearance cues of the 3D human and object into the alignment process to capture holistic contextual information, thereby ensuring visually plausible reconstructions. As a result, our framework produces accurate and semantically coherent reconstructions, achieving state-of-the-art performance.

Yinuo Bai, Peijun Xu, Kuixiang Shao, Yuyang Jiao, Jingxuan Zhang, Kaixin Yao, Jiayuan Gu, Jingyi Yu

Inter-object relations underpin spatial intelligence, yet existing representations--linguistic prepositions or object-level scene graphs--are too coarse to specify which regions actually support, contain, or contact one another, leading to ambiguous and physically inconsistent layouts. To address these ambiguities, a part-level formulation is needed; therefore, we introduce PARSE, a framework that explicitly models how object parts interact to determine feasible and spatially grounded scene configurations. PARSE centers on the Part-centric Assembly Graph (PAG), which encodes geometric relations between specific object parts, and a Part-Aware Spatial Configuration Solver that converts these relations into geometric constraints to assemble collision-free, physically valid scenes. Using PARSE, we build PARSE-10K, a dataset of 10,000 3D indoor scenes constructed from real-image layout priors and a curated part-annotated shape database, each with dense contact structures and a part-level contact graph. With this structured, spatially grounded supervision, fine-tuning Qwen3-VL on PARSE-10K yields stronger object-level layout reasoning and more accurate part-level relation understanding; furthermore, leveraging PAGs as structural priors in 3D generation models leads to scenes with substantially improved physical realism and structural complexity. Together, these results show that PARSE significantly advances geometry-grounded spatial reasoning and supports the generation of physically consistent 3D scenes.

Daehyun Kim, Youngmin Kim, Yoon Ju Oh, Tae Hyun Kim

Under-display cameras (UDCs) allow for full-screen designs by positioning the imaging sensor underneath the display. Nonetheless, light diffraction and scattering through the various display layers result in spatially varying and complex degradations, which significantly reduce high-frequency details. Current PSF-based physical modeling techniques and frequency-separation networks are effective at reconstructing low-frequency structures and maintaining overall color consistency. However, they still face challenges in recovering fine details when dealing with complex, spatially varying degradation. To solve this problem, we propose a lightweight Uncertainty-aware Context-Memory Network (UCMNet), for UDC image restoration. Unlike previous methods that apply uniform restoration, UCMNet performs uncertainty-aware adaptive processing to restore high-frequency details in regions with varying degradations. The estimated uncertainty maps, learned through an uncertainty-driven loss, quantify spatial uncertainty induced by diffraction and scattering, and guide the Memory Bank to retrieve region-adaptive context from the Context Bank. This process enables effective modeling of the non-uniform degradation characteristics inherent to UDC imaging. Leveraging this uncertainty as a prior, UCMNet achieves state-of-the-art performance on multiple benchmarks with 30% fewer parameters than previous models. Project page: https://kdhrick2222.github.io/projects/UCMNet.

Jianhao Yuan, Xiaofeng Zhang, Felix Friedrich, Nicolas Beltran-Velez, Melissa Hall, Reyhane Askari-Hemmat, Xiaochuang Han, Nicolas Ballas, Michal Drozdzal, Adriana Romero-Soriano

State-of-the-art video generative models produce promising visual content yet often violate basic physics principles, limiting their utility. While some attribute this deficiency to insufficient physics understanding from pre-training, we find that the shortfall in physics plausibility also stems from suboptimal inference strategies. We therefore introduce WMReward and treat improving physics plausibility of video generation as an inference-time alignment problem. In particular, we leverage the strong physics prior of a latent world model (here, VJEPA-2) as a reward to search and steer multiple candidate denoising trajectories, enabling scaling test-time compute for better generation performance. Empirically, our approach substantially improves physics plausibility across image-conditioned, multiframe-conditioned, and text-conditioned generation settings, with validation from human preference study. Notably, in the ICCV 2025 Perception Test PhysicsIQ Challenge, we achieve a final score of 62.64%, winning first place and outperforming the previous state of the art by 7.42%. Our work demonstrates the viability of using latent world models to improve physics plausibility of video generation, beyond this specific instantiation or parameterization.

Chaonan Ji, Jinwei Qi, Sheng Xu, Peng Zhang, Bang Zhang

Existing facial reenactment methods struggle with a trade-off between expressiveness and fine-grained controllability. Holistic facial reenactment models often sacrifice granular control for expressiveness, while methods designed for control may struggle with fidelity and robust disentanglement. Instead of treating facial motion as a monolithic signal, we explore an alternative compositional perspective. In this paper, we introduce PortraitDirector, a novel framework that formulates face reenactment as a hierarchical composition task, achieving high-fidelity and controllable results. We employ a Hierarchical Motion Disentanglement and Composition strategy, deconstructing facial motion into a Spatial Layer for physical movements and a Semantic Layer for emotional content. The Spatial Layer comprises: (i) global head pose, managed via a dedicated representation and injection pathway; (ii) spatially separated local facial expressions, distilled from cropped facial regions and purged of emotional cues via Emotion-Filtering Module leveraging an information bottleneck. The Semantic Layer contains a derived global emotion. The disentangled components are then recomposed into an expressive motion latent. Furthermore, we engineer the framework for real-time performance through a suite of optimizations, including diffusion distillation, causal attention and VAE acceleration. PortraitDirector achieves streaming, high-fidelity, controllable 512 x 512 face reenactment at 20 FPS with a end-to-end 800 ms latency on a single 5090 GPU.