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Computer Vision · Vision Models & Multimodal

Minsoo Kim, Kyuhong Shim, Jungwook Choi, Simyung Chang

Modern multimodal large language models (MLLMs) can reason over hour-long video, yet their key–value (KV) cache grows linearly with time—quickly exceeding the fixed memory of phones, AR glasses, and edge robots. Prior compression schemes either assume the whole video and user query are available offline or must first build the full cache, so memory still scales with stream length. InfiniPot-V is the first training-free, query-agnostic framework that enforces a hard, length-independent memory cap for \textit{streaming} video understanding. During video encoding it monitors the cache and, once a user-set threshold is reached, runs a lightweight compression pass that (i) removes temporally redundant tokens via Temporal-axis Redundancy (TaR) metric and (ii) keeps semantically significant tokens via Value-Norm (VaN) ranking. Across four open-source MLLMs and four long-video and streaming-video benchmarks, InfiniPot-V cuts peak GPU memory by up to 94\%, sustains real-time generation, and matches or surpasses full-cache accuracy—even in multi-turn dialogues. By dissolving the KV cache bottleneck without retraining or query knowledge, InfiniPot-V closes the gap for on-device streaming video assistants.

Applications · Robotics

Wenbo Zhang, Tianrun Hu, Hanbo Zhang, Yanyuan Qiao, Yuchu Qin, Yang Li, Jiajun Liu, Tao Kong, Lingqiao Liu, Xiao Ma

We present Chain-of-Action (CoA), a novel visuomotor policy paradigm built upon Trajectory Autoregressive Modeling. Unlike conventional approaches that predict next step action(s) forward, CoA generates an entire trajectory by explicit backward reasoning with task-specific goals through an action-level Chain-of-Thought (CoT) process. This process is unified within a single autoregressive structure: (1) the first token corresponds to a stable keyframe action that encodes the task-specific goals; and (2) subsequent action tokens are generated autoregressively, conditioned on the initial keyframe and previously predicted actions. This backward action reasoning enforces a global-to-local structure, allowing each local action to be tightly constrained by the final goal. To further realize the action reasoning structure, CoA incorporates four complementary designs: continuous action token representation; dynamic stopping for variable-length trajectory generation; reverse temporal ensemble; and multi-token prediction to balance action chunk modeling with global structure. As a result, CoA gives strong spatial generalization capabilities while preserving the flexibility and simplicity of a visuomotor policy. Empirically, we observe that CoA outperforms representative imitation learning algorithms such as ACT and Diffusion Policy across 60 RLBench tasks and 8 real-world tasks.

Applications · Robotics

Jiaming Zhou, Ke Ye, Jiayi Liu, Teli Ma, Zifan Wang, Ronghe QIU, Kun-Yu Lin, Zhilin Zhao, Junwei Liang

The generalization capabilities of vision-language-action (VLA) models to unseen tasks are crucial to achieving general-purpose robotic manipulation in open-world settings. However, the cross-task generalization capabilities of existing VLA models remain significantly underexplored. To address this gap, we introduce **AGNOSTOS**, a novel simulation benchmark designed to rigorously evaluate cross-task zero-shot generalization in manipulation. AGNOSTOS comprises 23 unseen manipulation tasks for test—distinct from common training task distributions—and incorporates two levels of generalization difficulty to assess robustness. Our systematic evaluation reveals that current VLA models, despite being trained on diverse datasets, struggle to generalize effectively to these unseen tasks. To overcome this limitation, we propose **Cross-Task In-Context Manipulation (X-ICM)**, a method that conditions large language models (LLMs) on in-context demonstrations from seen tasks to predict action sequences for unseen tasks. Additionally, we introduce a **dynamics-guided sample selection** strategy that identifies relevant demonstrations by capturing cross-task dynamics. On AGNOSTOS, X-ICM significantly improves cross-task zero-shot generalization performance over leading VLAs, achieving improvements of 6.0\% over $\pi_0$ and 7.9\% over VoxPoser. We believe AGNOSTOS and X-ICM will serve as valuable tools for advancing general-purpose robotic manipulation.

Reinforcement Learning · Batch Offline

Wei Huang, Jianshu Zhang, Leiyu Wang, Heyue Li, Luoyi Fan, Yichen Zhu, Nanyang Ye, Qinying Gu

Offline reinforcement learning (offline RL) is increasingly approached as a sequence modeling task, with methods leveraging advanced architectures like Transformers to capture trajectory dependencies. Despite significant progress, the mechanisms underlying their effectiveness and limitations remain insufficiently understood. We conduct a thorough analysis on the representative Decision Transformer (DT) model using an entropy analysis and identify the inconsistencies in state-action-reward ($\langle s, a, R \rangle$) distributions causing attention ``dispersal". To address this, we propose a hierarchical framework that decomposes sequence modeling into intra-step relational modeling—handled by a Token Merger that fuses each $\langle s, a, R \rangle$ triplet—and inter-step modeling—handled by a Token Mixer across timesteps. We investigate several Token Merger designs and validate their effectiveness across various offline RL methods. Furthermore, our theoretical analysis and experimental results suggest that while Token Mixers are important, lightweight architecture can also achieve even better performance to more complex ones. We therefore propose a parameter-free Average Pooling Token Mixer, which, combined with a convolutional Token Merger, forms our final model, Decision HiFormer (DHi). DHi achieves a \textbf{73.6\%} improvement in inference speed and an \textbf{9.3\%} gain in policy performance on the D4RL benchmark compared to DT. DHi also generalizes well to real-world robotic manipulation tasks, offering both practical benefits and insights into sequence-based policy design for offline RL. Code and models are public at \href{https://wei-nijuan.github.io/DecisionHiFormer/}{project page}.

Lingyi Wang, Rashed Shelim, Walid Saad, Naren Ramakrishnan

Imagination in world models is crucial for enabling agents to learn long-horizon policy in a sample-efficient manner. Existing recurrent state-space model (RSSM)-based world models depend on single-step statistical inference to capture the environment dynamics, and, hence, they are unable to perform long-term imagination tasks due to the accumulation of prediction errors. Inspired by the dual-process theory of human cognition, we propose a novel dual-mind world model (DMWM) framework that integrates logical reasoning to enable imagination with logical consistency. DMWM is composed of two components: an RSSM-based System 1 (RSSM-S1) component that handles state transitions in an intuitive manner and a logic-integrated neural network-based System 2 (LINN-S2) component that guides the imagination process through hierarchical deep logical reasoning. The inter-system feedback mechanism is designed to ensure that the imagination process follows the logical rules of the real environment. The proposed framework is evaluated on benchmark tasks that require long-term planning from the DMControl suite and robotic environment. Extensive experimental results demonstrate that the proposed framework yields significant improvements in terms of logical coherence, trial efficiency, data efficiency and long-term imagination over the state-of-the-art world models.

Applications · Robotics

Yanping Fu, Xinyuan Liu, Tianyu Li, Yike Ma, Yucheng Zhang, Feng Dai

Topology reasoning, which unifies perception and structured reasoning, plays a vital role in understanding intersections for autonomous driving. However, its performance heavily relies on the accuracy of lane detection, particularly at connected lane endpoints. Existing methods often suffer from lane endpoints deviation, leading to incorrect topology construction. To address this issue, we propose TopoPoint, a novel framework that explicitly detects lane endpoints and jointly reasons over endpoints and lanes for robust topology reasoning. During training, we independently initialize point and lane query, and proposed Point-Lane Merge Self-Attention to enhance global context sharing through incorporating geometric distances between points and lanes as an attention mask . We further design Point-Lane Graph Convolutional Network to enable mutual feature aggregation between point and lane query. During inference, we introduce Point-Lane Geometry Matching algorithm that computes distances between detected points and lanes to refine lane endpoints, effectively mitigating endpoint deviation. Extensive experiments on the OpenLane-V2 benchmark demonstrate that TopoPoint achieves state-of-the-art performance in topology reasoning (48.8 on OLS). Additionally, we propose DET$_p$ to evaluate endpoint detection, under which our method significantly outperforms existing approaches (52.6 v.s. 45.2 on DET$_p$). The code is released at https://github.com/Franpin/TopoPoint.

Applications · Robotics

Kaiyuan Eric Chen, Shuangyu Xie, Zehan Ma, Pannag Sanketi, Ken Goldberg

Vision-Language Models (VLMs) acquire real-world knowledge and general reasoning ability through Internet-scale image-text corpora. They can augment robotic systems with scene understanding and task planning, and assist visuomotor policies that are trained on robot trajectory data. We explore the reverse paradigm — using rich, real, multi-modal robot trajectory data to enhance and evaluate VLMs. In this paper, we present Robo2VLM, a Visual Question Answering (VQA) dataset generation framework for VLMs. Given a human tele-operated robot demonstration with video and robot data, Robo2VLM derives ground-truth from non-visual and non-descriptive sensory modalities, such as end-effector pose, gripper aperture, and force sensing. Based on these modalities, it segments the robot trajectory into a sequence of manipulation phases. At each phase, Robo2VLM uses scene and interaction understanding to identify 3D properties of the robot, task goal, and the target object. The properties are used to generate representative VQA queries – images with textural multiple-choice questions – based on spatial, goal-conditioned, and interaction reasoning question templates. We use a subset of Open X-Embodiment to generate Robo2VLM-1, a large-scale in-the-wild dataset with 684,710 questions based on 463 distinct scenes and 3,396 robotic manipulation tasks from 176k real robot trajectories. Results suggest that Robo2VLM-1 can benchmark and improve VLM capabilities in spatial and interaction reasoning.

Reinforcement Learning · Deep RL

Nicolas Castanet, Olivier Sigaud, Sylvain Lamprier

Goal-Conditioned Reinforcement Learning (GCRL) enables agents to autonomously acquire diverse behaviors, but faces major challenges in visual environments due to high-dimensional, semantically sparse observations. In the online setting, where agents learn representations while exploring, the latent space evolves with the agent's policy, to capture newly discovered areas of the environment. However, without incentivization to maximize state coverage in the representation, classical approaches based on auto-encoders may converge to latent spaces that over-represent a restricted set of states frequently visited by the agent. This is exacerbated in an intrinsic motivation setting, where the agent uses the distribution encoded in the latent space to sample the goals it learns to master. To address this issue, we propose to progressively enforce distributional shifts towards a uniform distribution over the full state space, to ensure a full coverage of skills that can be learned in the environment. We introduce DRAG (Distributionally Robust Auto-Encoding for GCRL), a method that combines the $\beta$-VAE framework with Distributionally Robust Optimization (DRO). DRAG leverage an adversarial neural weighter of training states of the VAE, to account for the mismatch between the current data distribution and unseen parts of the environment. This allows the agent to construct semantically meaningful latent spaces beyond its immediate experience. Our approach improves state space coverage and downstream control performance on hard exploration environments such as mazes and robotic control involving walls to bypass, without relying on pre-training nor prior environment knowledge.

Computer Vision · Classification and Understanding

KunHo Heo, GiHyun Kim, SuYeon Kim, MyeongAh Cho

3D Semantic Scene Graph Prediction aims to detect objects and their semantic relationships in 3D scenes, and has emerged as a crucial technology for robotics and AR/VR applications. While previous research has addressed dataset limitations and explored various approaches including Open-Vocabulary settings, they frequently fail to optimize the representational capacity of object and relationship features, showing excessive reliance on Graph Neural Networks despite insufficient discriminative capability. In this work, we demonstrate through extensive analysis that the quality of object features plays a critical role in determining overall scene graph accuracy. To address this challenge, we design a highly discriminative object feature encoder and employ a contrastive pretraining strategy that decouples object representation learning from the scene graph prediction. This design not only enhances object classification accuracy but also yields direct improvements in relationship prediction. Notably, when plugging in our pretrained encoder into existing frameworks, we observe substantial performance improvements across all evaluation metrics. Additionally, whereas existing approaches have not fully exploited the integration of relationship information, we effectively combine both geometric and semantic features to achieve superior relationship prediction. Comprehensive experiments on the 3DSSG dataset demonstrate that our approach significantly outperforms previous state-of-the-art methods. Our code is publicly available at https://github.com/VisualScienceLab-KHU/OCRL-3DSSG-Codes.

Probabilistic Methods

Sang Min Kim, Byeongchan Kim, Arijit Sehanobish, Somnath Basu Roy Chowdhury, Rahul Kidambi, Dongseok Shim, Kumar Avinava Dubey, Snigdha Chaturvedi, Min-hwan Oh, Krzysztof M Choromanski

Efficient neural networks are essential for scaling machine learning models to real-time applications and resource-constrained environments. Fully-connected feedforward layers (FFLs) introduce computation and parameter count bottlenecks within neural network architectures. To address this challenge, in this work, we propose a new class of dense layers that generalize standard fully-connected feedforward layers, $\textbf{E}$fficient, $\textbf{U}$nified and $\textbf{Gen}$eral dense layers (EUGens). EUGens leverage random features to approximate standard FFLs and go beyond them by incorporating a direct dependence on the input norms in their computations. The proposed layers unify existing efficient FFL extensions and improve efficiency by reducing inference complexity from quadratic to linear time. They also lead to $\textbf{the first}$ unbiased algorithms approximating FFLs with arbitrary polynomial activation functions. Furthermore, EuGens reduce the parameter count and computational overhead while preserving the expressive power and adaptability of FFLs. We also present a layer-wise knowledge transfer technique that bypasses backpropagation, enabling efficient adaptation of EUGens to pre-trained models. Empirically, we observe that integrating EUGens into Transformers and MLPs yields substantial improvements in inference speed (up to $\textbf{27}$\%) and memory efficiency (up to $\textbf{30}$\%) across a range of tasks, including image classification, language model pre-training, and 3D scene reconstruction. Overall, our results highlight the potential of EUGens for the scalable deployment of large-scale neural networks in real-world scenarios.

Applications · Physics

Haoran Li, CHENHAN XIAO, Muhao Guo, Yang Weng

Learning dynamics is essential for model-based control and Reinforcement Learning in systems operating in changing environments, such as robotics, autonomous vehicles, and power systems. However, limited system measurements, such as those from low-resolution meters, demand sample-efficient learning. Symmetry provides a powerful inductive bias by characterizing equivalent relations in system behavior to improve sample efficiency. While recent methods attempt to discover symmetries from data, they typically assume a single global symmetry group and treat symmetry discovery and dynamic learning as separate tasks, leading to limited expressiveness and error accumulation. In this paper, we propose the Latent Mixture of Symmetries (Latent MoS), an expressive model that captures symmetry-governed latent factors from complex dynamical measurements. Latent MoS focuses on dynamic learning while locally preserving the underlying symmetric transformations. To further capture long-range temporal equivalence, we introduce a hierarchical architecture that stacks Latent MoS blocks across multiple time scales. Numerical experiments across diverse physical systems demonstrate that Latent MoS significantly outperforms state-of-the-art baselines in interpolation and extrapolation tasks while offering interpretable latent representations suitable for future geometric and safety-critical analysis.

Applications · Robotics

Ankan Bhunia, Changjian Li, Hakan Bilen

This paper presents a novel problem, interactive anomaly detection (AD) for articulated objects, and introduces a tailored solution that detects functional anomalies by integrating vision, interaction, and anticipation. Unlike traditional AD methods that rely on passive visual observations, our approach actively manipulates objects to reveal anomalies that would otherwise remain hidden. Our method learns to generate a sequence of actions to interact exclusively with normal objects and to anticipate the resulting normal motion. During inference, the model applies predicted actions to the object and compares the observed motion with the anticipated motion to detect anomalies. Additionally, we introduce a new benchmark, PartNet-IAD, for interactive AD, which includes articulated objects with realistic functional anomalies. Experiments show strong generalization to detect anomalies in both seen and unseen object categories. Code and dataset will be released.

General Machine Learning · Causality

Zhiyu Zhao, Haoxuan Li, Haifeng Zhang, Jun Wang, Francesco Faccio, Jürgen Schmidhuber, Mengyue Yang

When building a world model, a common assumption is that the environment has a single, unchanging underlying causal rule, like applying Newton's laws to every situation. However, in truly open-ended environments, the apparent causal mechanism may drift over time because the agent continually encounters novel contexts and operates within a limited observational window. This brings about a problem that, when building a world model, even subtle shifts in policy or environment states can alter the very observed causal mechanisms. In this work, we introduce the Meta-Causal Graph as world models for open-ended environments, a minimal unified representation that efficiently encodes the transformation rules governing how causal structures shift across different latent world states. A single Meta-Causal Graph is composed of multiple causal subgraphs, each triggered by meta state, which is in the latent state space. Building on this representation, we introduce a Causality-Seeking Agent whose objectives are to (1) identify the meta states that trigger each subgraph, (2) discover the corresponding causal relationships by agent curiosity-driven intervention policy, and (3) iteratively refine the Meta-Causal Graph through ongoing curiosity-driven exploration and agent experiences. Experiments on both synthetic tasks and a challenging robot arm manipulation task demonstrate that our method robustly captures shifts in causal dynamics and generalizes effectively to previously unseen contexts.

Computer Vision · Vision Models & Multimodal

Zihan Wang, Seungjun Lee, Gim Hee Lee

Vision-and-Language Navigation (VLN) is a core task where embodied agents leverage their spatial mobility to navigate in 3D environments toward designated destinations based on natural language instructions. Recently, video-language large models (Video-VLMs) with strong generalization capabilities and rich commonsense knowledge have shown remarkable performance when applied to VLN tasks. However, these models still encounter the following challenges when applied to real-world 3D navigation: 1) Insufficient understanding of 3D geometry and spatial semantics; 2) Limited capacity for large-scale exploration and long-term environmental memory; 3) Poor adaptability to dynamic and changing environments.To address these limitations, we propose Dynam3D, a dynamic layered 3D representation model that leverages language-aligned, generalizable, and hierarchical 3D representations as visual input to train 3D-VLM in navigation action prediction. Given posed RGB-D images, our Dynam3D projects 2D CLIP features into 3D space and constructs multi-level 3D patch-instance-zone representations for 3D geometric and semantic understanding with a dynamic and layer-wise update strategy. Our Dynam3D is capable of online encoding and localization of 3D instances, and dynamically updates them in changing environments to provide large-scale exploration and long-term memory capabilities for navigation. By leveraging large-scale 3D-language pretraining and task-specific adaptation, our Dynam3D sets new state-of-the-art performance on VLN benchmarks including R2R-CE, REVERIE-CE and NavRAG-CE under monocular settings. Furthermore, experiments for pre-exploration, lifelong memory, and real-world robot validate the effectiveness of practical deployment.

Theory · Reinforcement Learning and Planning

James Chapman, Kedar Karhadkar, Guido Montufar

Deep reinforcement learning (DRL) has achieved remarkable success across multiple domains, including competitive games, natural language processing, and robotics. Despite these advancements, policies trained via DRL often struggle to generalize to evaluation environments with different parameters. This challenge is typically addressed by training with multiple contexts and/or by leveraging additional structure in the problem. However, obtaining sufficient training data across diverse contexts can be impractical in real-world applications. In this work, we consider contextual Markov decision processes (CMDPs) with transition and reward functions that exhibit regularity in context parameters. We introduce the context-enhanced Bellman equation (CEBE) to improve generalization when training on a single context. We prove both analytically and empirically that the CEBE yields a first-order approximation to the Q function trained across multiple contexts. We then derive context sample enhancement (CSE) as an efficient data augmentation method for approximating the CEBE in deterministic control environments. We numerically validate the performance of CSE in simulation environments, showcasing its potential to improve generalization in DRL.

Applications · Robotics

Ryan Punamiya, Dhruv Patel, Patcharapong Aphiwetsa, Pranav Kuppili, Lawrence Zhu, Simar Kareer, Judy Hoffman, Danfei Xu

Egocentric human experience data presents a vast resource for scaling up end-to-end imitation learning for robotic manipulation. However, significant domain gaps in visual appearance, sensor modalities, and kinematics between human and robot impede knowledge transfer. This paper presents EgoBridge, a unified co-training framework that explicitly aligns the policy latent spaces between human and robot data using domain adaptation. Through a measure of discrepancy on the joint policy latent features and actions based on Optimal Transport (OT), we learn observation representations that not only align between the human and robot domain but also preserve the action-relevant information critical for policy learning. EgoBridge achieves a significant absolute policy success rate improvement by 44% over human-augmented cross-embodiment baselines in three real-world single-arm and bimanual manipulation tasks. EgoBridge also generalizes to new objects, scenes, and tasks seen only in human data, where baselines fail entirely. Videos and additional information can be found at https://ego-bridge.github.io/

Computer Vision · Image and Video Generation

Efstathios Karypidis, Ioannis Kakogeorgiou, Spyridon Gidaris, Nikos Komodakis

Predicting future dynamics is crucial for applications like autonomous driving and robotics, where understanding the environment is key. Existing pixel-level methods are computationally expensive and often focus on irrelevant details. To address these challenges, we introduce DINO-Foresight, a novel framework that operates in the semantic feature space of pretrained Vision Foundation Models (VFMs). Our approach trains a masked feature transformer in a self-supervised manner to predict the evolution of VFM features over time. By forecasting these features, we can apply off-the-shelf, task-specific heads for various scene understanding tasks. In this framework, VFM features are treated as a latent space, to which different heads attach to perform specific tasks for future-frame analysis. Extensive experiments show the very strong performance, robustness and scalability of our framework.

Gangwei Xu, Haotong Lin, Hongcheng Luo, Xianqi Wang, JINGFENG YAO, Lianghui Zhu, Yuechuan Pu, Cheng Chi_, Haiyang Sun, Bing Wang 等

This paper presents **Pixel-Perfect Depth**, a monocular depth estimation model based on pixel-space diffusion generation that produces high-quality, flying-pixel-free point clouds from estimated depth maps. Current generative depth estimation models fine-tune Stable Diffusion and achieve impressive performance. However, they require a VAE to compress depth maps into the latent space, which inevitably introduces flying pixels at edges and details. Our model addresses this challenge by directly performing diffusion generation in the pixel space, avoiding VAE-induced artifacts. To overcome the high complexity associated with pixel-space generation, we introduce two novel designs: 1) **Semantics-Prompted Diffusion Transformers** (**SP-DiT**), which incorporate semantic representations from vision foundation models into DiT to prompt the diffusion process, thereby preserving global semantic consistency while enhancing fine-grained visual details; and 2) **Cascade DiT Design** that progressively increases the number of tokens to further enhance efficiency and accuracy. Our model achieves the best performance among all published generative models across five benchmarks, and significantly outperforms all other models in edge-aware point cloud evaluation. Project page: https://pixel-perfect-depth.github.io/.

Applications · Robotics

Zhi Jing, Siyuan Yang, Jicong Ao, Ting Xiao, Yu-Gang Jiang, Chenjia Bai

For robotic manipulation, existing robotics datasets and simulation benchmarks predominantly cater to robot-arm platforms. However, for humanoid robots equipped with dual arms and dexterous hands, simulation tasks and high-quality demonstrations are notably lacking. Bimanual dexterous manipulation is inherently more complex, as it requires coordinated arm movements and hand operations, making autonomous data collection challenging. This paper presents HumanoidGen, an automated task creation and demonstration collection framework that leverages atomic dexterous operations and LLM reasoning to generate relational constraints. Specifically, we provide spatial annotations for both assets and dexterous hands based on the atomic operations, and perform an LLM planner to generate a chain of actionable spatial constraints for arm movements based on object affordances and scenes. To further improve planning ability, we employ a variant of Monte Carlo tree search to enhance LLM reasoning for long-horizon tasks and insufficient annotation. In experiments, we create a novel benchmark with augmented scenarios to evaluate the quality of the collected data. The results show that the performance of the 2D and 3D diffusion policies can scale with the generated dataset. Project page is https://openhumanoidgen.github.io.

Applications · Robotics

Xueyang Zhou, Guiyao Tie, Guowen Zhang, Hecheng Wang, Pan Zhou, Lichao Sun

Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models have advanced robotic control by enabling end-to-end decision-making directly from multimodal inputs. However, their tightly coupled architectures expose novel security vulnerabilities. Unlike traditional adversarial perturbations, backdoor attacks represent a stealthier, persistent, and practically significant threat—particularly under the emerging Training-as-a-Service paradigm—but remain largely unexplored in the context of VLA models. To address this gap, we propose **BadVLA**, a backdoor attack method based on Objective-Decoupled Optimization, which for the first time exposes the backdoor vulnerabilities of VLA models. Specifically, it consists of a two-stage process: (1) explicit feature-space separation to isolate trigger representations from benign inputs, and (2) conditional control deviations that activate only in the presence of the trigger, while preserving clean-task performance. Empirical results on multiple VLA benchmarks demonstrate that BadVLA consistently achieves near-100\% attack success rates with minimal impact on clean task accuracy. Further analyses confirm its robustness against common input perturbations, task transfers, and model fine-tuning, underscoring critical security vulnerabilities in current VLA deployments. Our work offers the first systematic investigation of backdoor vulnerabilities in VLA models, highlighting an urgent need for secure and trustworthy embodied model design practices.